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This category only includes cookies that ensures basic functionalities and security features of the website. Caswell believes that curriculum is a set of experiences. To Tyler, Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values. The process emphasizes problem solving. The curriculum aims to educate generalists and not specialists.
The historical development shows the different changes in the purposes, principles and content of the curriculum. The different changes are influenced by educational philosophy, psychology and pedagogical theorist.
This implies that curriculum is ever changing putting in knowledge and content from many fields of disciplines. Psychological Foundation of Education Psychological provides a basis for the teaching and learning process.
It unifies elements of the learning process and some of the questions which can be addressed by psychological foundations of education. How curriculum should be organized to enhanced learning? Let us review some theories in learning related to these clusters of learning theories. Behaviorist Psychology Behaviorism dominated the 20th century psychology. The listed learning outcomes overlap with the domains in the taxonomy of educational objectives which are cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
To the behaviorists, learning should be organized in order that students can experience success in the process of mastering the subject matter. This method is introduced in a step by step manner with proper sequencing of task which is viewed by other educational psychologist as simplistic and mechanical. Cognitive Psychology How do learners store information? How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions? These are some of the basic questions asked by cognitive psychologists. These psychologists focus their attention on how individuals process information and how they monitor and manage thinking.
To cognitive theorists, learning constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning. Learning is rooted in the tradition of subject matter and is similar to the cognitive development theory. Teachers use a lot of problem and thinking skills in teaching and learning. These are exemplified by practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning and many others. Humanistic Psychology Humanistic psychologists are concerned with how learners can develop their human potential.
Traditional psychologists do not recognize humanistic psychology as a school of psychology. However, observers view humanistic psychology as the third force learning theory after behaviorism and cognitive development.
It is built on Gestalt psychology where learning can be explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem and where the environment is changing and the learner is continuously reorganizing his or her perceptions. In summary, psychology has a great influence in the curriculum. Learners are not machines and their mind is not a computer. Humans are biological beings affected by their biology and cultures. The psychological foundations will help curriculum makers in nurturing a more advanced, more comprehensive and complete human learning.
Social Foundations of Education Schools exist within the social context. Societal culture affects and shapes schools and their curricula. The way school buildings are structured, the way classrooms and students are organized reflect the cultural views and values of the society.
In considering the social foundations of curriculum, we must recognize that schools are only one of the many institutions that educate society. But schools are formal institutions that address more complex and interrelated societies and the world. Society as ever dynamic is a source of very fast changes which are difficult to cope with and adjust to.
Thus schools are made to help to understand these changes. However, some observations point out to the fact that schools are conservative institutions that lag behind when Thus, in order for schools to be relevant, school curricula should address diversity, explosions of knowledge, school reforms and education for all. The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and encompassing. Hence, to be relevant, the curricula should reflect and preserve the culture of society and its aspirations at the same time society and its aspirations.
At the same time society should also imbibe the challenges brought about by formal institutions called schools. You may do the following activities individually, in dyad, or in groups of not more than five.
Follow the instruction in each group activity. Ask each one of the question: What is curriculum to you? Record their answers and present the definition in a matrix like the one below. Compare each definition. Are they similar? Visit a school of your choice. Identify the existence of the different curricula. Write the specific examples. Record your data in a matrix like the one below. Give specific examples or illustrations.
This portion will require you to have a deep thinking. Answer the questions by yourself first, then get a partner and shared your ideas. Listened to your partners ideas also.
Can a school exist without a curriculum? Why or why not? How does a strong belief or philosophy influence curriculum? As future teachers, how important will a curriculum be to you? What are the implications of an ever changing curriculum to teachers?
You may go back to your readings and activities which you have done before. Good Luck. Name five persons who contributed to the field of curriculum. Give the contribution of each other. How do philosophy, psychology, history and society influence the development of a curriculum?
Explain how the three processes of planning, implementing and evaluating are used in curriculum development? These topics will strengthen your knowledge and understanding of the nature, concepts and purposes of the curriculum.
What parts or components should a curriculum have? How should these components be arranged? The nature of the elements and the manner in which they are organized may comprise which we call a curriculum design. However, this section will only introduce to you the elements or components of a curriculum. It will not discuss in length how each component relates to one another but will merely provide the structure or the skeleton of the curriculum.
The other section of this lesson presents the approaches to curriculum. The approach to curriculum reflects the views of schools and societies. It will reveal the philosophy, view of history, psychology and learning theory which will become the foundation of the curriculum.
It will also tell about the view of how social, theoretical and practical issues are utilized in the curriculum. A curriculum approach shows the viewpoints of curriculum development and design, the role of the learner, the teacher, the curriculum specialist in planning the curriculum. It also includes the goals and objectives of the curriculum. In this lesson, let us look at the components and some approaches to curriculum.
Some approaches coincide with traditional theories and models while some are fluid and emergent. When translated into questions, each component can be addressed by the following: 1. What is to be done? What subject matter is to be included?
What instructional strategies, resources and activities will be employed? What methods and instruments will be used to assess the results of the curriculum? Schools are established institutions which are either run by the government or by the private sector. The Philippine educational system is divided in three educational levels: primary, secondary and tertiary levels.
Based on the Philippine Constitution of , all schools shall aim to: 1. Inculcate patriotism and nationalism 2. Foster love of humanity 3.
Promote respect for human rights 4. Appreciate the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country 5. Teach the rights and duties of citizenship 6. Strengthen ethical and spiritual values 7. Develop moral character and personal discipline 8. Encourage critical and creative thinking 9. Aims of Tertiary Education Tertiary education refers to college and university formal education based on the curricula of the different courses.
It provides the focal point or unifying element according to which the school staff, faculty, students perform individually or collectively. It is the guiding post around which all educational efforts including should be directed. A model performing high school where students are equipped with knowledge, skill and strength of character to realize their potential to the fullest.
Commits to the exemplary Christian education for life and responsive to the needs of the total person and the world. The mission targets to produce the kind of persons the students will become after having been educated over a certain period of time.
To produce globally competitive lifelong learners. Commits to the total development of individuals for life adjustment and to the enlistment of the economically deprived but deserving students through quality instruction, updated facilities and curricula responsive to the needs of the times.
Data for the sources of school goals may include the learns, the society and the fund of knowledge. Examples of school goals: 1. Build a strong foundation of skills and concepts. Efficient and effective administration responsive of the needs of the university and community In a curriculum, these goals are made simple and specific for the attainment of each learner. These are called educational objectives. Benjamin bloom and Robert Mager defined educational objectives in two ways: 1.
Explicit formulations of the ways in which students are expected to be changed by the educative process, and 2. Intent communicated by statement describing a proposed change in learners.
In other words, objectives direct the change in behavior which is the ultimate aim of learning. They provide the bases for the selection of learning content and learning experiences. They also set the criteria against which learning outcomes will be evaluated.
Benjamin Bloom and his associates classified three big domains of objectives. These are cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. Each domain is composed of specific skills, attitudes and values which are presented in hierarchy or levels.
Although there are some Cognitive Domain Bloom et al — domain of thought process 1. Knowledge — recall, remembering of prior learned materials in terms of facts, concepts, theories and principles. It is the lowest cognitive level 2. Comprehension — ability to grasp the meaning of material. Application — the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situation 4.
Analysis — ability to breakdown material into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood 5. Synthesis — ability to put parts together to form a new whole 6. Evaluation — ability to pass judgment on something based on given criteria Affective Domain Krathwohl, — domain of valuing, attitude and appreciation 1. Responding — active participation on the part of the students 3.
Valuing — concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to a particular phenomena, object or behavior 4. Organization — concerned with bringing together different values and building a value system 5. Characterization by a value or value complex — developing a lifestyle from a value system Psychomotor Domain Simpson, — domain of the use of psychomotor attributes 1.
Perception — use of sense organs to guide motor activities 2. Guided response — concerned with the early stages in learning complex skills. Imitation and trial and error are some of the ways of doing. Mechanism — responses have become habitual. Performance skills are with ease and confidence. Component 2 — Curriculum Content or Subject Matter All curricula have content, regardless of their design or models.
Content is more than simply information to be learned in school. To some curriculum specialists, content or subject matter is another term for knowledge. It is a compendium of facts, concepts generalization, principles and theories. Let us look into broad subject areas in basic or general education.
Each subject area has its own body of subject matter or learning content. Communication Arts — include skills in listening, speaking, reading and writing as well as the effective use of language in daily living. Mathematics — includes numeric and computational skills, geometry and measurement, algebra, logic and reasoning. Music — includes basic music theory, practice in listening, singing, playing musical instruments and music preparation.
Physical Education—includes health and physical fitness, individual and team sports, spectatorship and wise use of leisure. Vocational Education — includes psychomotor and manipulative skills in basic crafts and trades, design, work ethic and appreciation of manual productive work. What subject matter will be taught in the different clusters in order to achieve the objectives? What criteria should be used in selecting the content? Content selection is a very crucial stage in curriculum development.
Here are some criteria which can be utilized in the selection of subject matter content or knowledge for the curriculum. Significance — When content or subject matter will contribute to basic ideas, concepts, principles, and generalization to achieve the overall aim of the curriculum, then it is significant.
It is also significant if it will develop learning abilities, skills, processes and attitude. Subject matter is significant if it will develop the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills of the learners. Validity — The authenticity of the subject matter selected is its validity. With information explosion, oftentimes, knowledge selected for school content may become obsolete. Thus subject matter should be checked or verified at regular intervals, to determine if the content that was originally valid continues to be.
A learner will value the content if it is meaningful to him or her. Utility — Usefulness of the content or subject matter may be relative to the learner who is going to use it. Usefulness maybe either be for the present or the future. Learnability — Subject matter in the curriculum should be within the range of experiences of the learners.
This is clearly suggested by the psychological foundations of a curriculum. There are ways of presenting subject matter or content which can easily be learned. Optimal placement and appropriate organization and sequencing of contents are the two ways by which these can be done.
Content selection should be considered within the context of the existing reality in school, in society and government. It would be of greater he curriculum makers can use them. As a guide, subject matter or content can be rejected for use he these are: a.
In organizing or putting together the different learning contents Palma, suggested the following principles: balance, articulation, sequence, integration and continuity. Curriculum content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth of the particular learning area or discipline.
This will ensure that the level or area will not be overcrowded or less crowded. When each level of subject matter is smoothly connected to the next, glaring gap and wasteful overlaps in the subject matter will be avoided. It refers to the deepening and broadening of content as it is taken up in the higher levels.
The horizontal connections are needed in subject areas that are similar so that learning will be related to one another. This will help the learner get a holistic or unified view of reality and outlook in life. Learning requires a continuing application of the new knowledge, skills, attitudes states so that there will be used in daily living. Instead it will link instructional strategies and methods to curriculum experiences, the core or the heart of the curriculum. The instructional strategies and methods will put into action the goal and use the contents in order to produce an outcome.
Teaching Strategies convert the written curriculum to instruction. Both the teacher and the learner take actions to facilitate learning. The actions are based on planned objectives, the subject matters to be taken and the support materials to be used.
There will include a multitude of teaching methods and educational activities which will enhance learning. Educational activities like field viewing, conducting experiments, interacting with computer programs, field trips and other experiential learning will also form part of the repertoire of teaching. Whatever methods the teacher utilizes to implement the curriculum, there will be some guide for the selection and use. Here are some of them: 1. Teaching methods are means to achieve the end.
They are used to translate the objectives into action. There is one single best teaching method. Its effectiveness will depend on the learning objectives, the learning and skill of the teacher. Teaching methods should stimulate the learners desire to develop the cognitive, affective, psychomotor, social and spiritual domain of the individual. In the choice of the teaching methods, learning styles of the students should be considered.
Every method should lead to the development of the learning outcomes in the three domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Flexibility should be a consideration in the use of the teaching methods. Curriculum evaluation here may refer to the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of the program, process, product of the curriculum.
Tuckman defines evaluation as meeting the goals and matching them with the intended outcomes. From the definitions, several models of evaluation came up. In CIPP, the process is continuous and is very important to curriculum managers like principals, supervisors, department head, deans and even teachers.
The context refers to the environment of the curriculum. The real situation where the curriculum is operating is its context. Simply put, context evaluation refers to situation analysis. Input refers to the ingredients of curriculum which include the goals, instructional strategies, the learners, the teacher, the contents and all the materials needed.
The process refers to views and means of how the curriculum has been implemented. This component of the CIPP looks into the entire operation of the curriculum.
The product indicates he the curriculum accomplishes its goals. It will determine to what extent the curriculum objectives have been achieved. The CIPP model can be taken as a whole, or each component taken separately. It is a long of continuous process. Within the evaluation process, smaller and more specific activities are needed to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum.
There activities include assessment and measurement of learning outcomes, the ultimate product of a curriculum. With the variety of evaluation methods are the different materials which can be effectively utilized. You will study there in more detail in the modules that come later.
Regardless of the methods and materials evaluation will utilize, a suggested plan of action for the process of curriculum evaluation is introduces. These are the steps. Will it be the subject area, the grade level, the course, or the degree program? Specify the objectives of evaluation. Collect or having the information. Information is made up of data needed regarding the object of evaluation. Organize the information. This step will require coding, organizing, storing and retrieving data for interpretation.
Analyze information. An appropriate way of analyzing will be utilized. Report the information. The result of evaluation should be reported to specific audiences.
Reporting can be done formally in conferences with stakeholders, or informally through roundtable discussions and conversations. Recycle the information for continuous feedback, modification and adjustments to be made. In summary, the components of a curriculum are distinct but are interrelated to each other in a curriculum design as shown in figure 2.
Figure 2 — Interrelationship of the Components of a Curriculum Curriculum Approaches There are five curriculum approaches that will be presented in this lesson. Curriculum practitioners and implementers may use one or more approaches in planning, implementing and evaluating the curriculum.
Even textbook writers or instructional material producers have different curricular approaches. Let us study and understand each example. Behavioral Approach — Anchored on the behaviorist principles, behavioral approach to curriculum is usually based on a blueprint. In the blueprint, goals and objectives are specified, contents and activities are also arranged to match with the learning objectives.
The learning outcomes are evaluated in terms of goals and objectives set at the beginning. Behavioral approach which was started with the idea of Frederick Taylor is aimed to achieve efficiency. In the factory for example, the worker will be paid according to his output produced with in a specific period of time. In education, behavioral approach begins with educational plans that start withthe setting of goals or objectives.
These are considered as important ingredients in curriculum implementation as evaluating the learning outcomes as a change of behavior. The change in behavior indicates the measure of the accomplishments. The general manager sets the policies and priorities, establishes the direction of change and innovation, and planning and organizing curriculum and instruction.
School administrators are less concerned about the content than about organization and implementation. They are less concerned about subject matter, methods and materials than improving curriculum. Curriculum managers look at curriculum changes and innovations as they administer the resources and restructure the schools. Some of the roles of the Curriculum Supervisors Ornstein and Hunkins, are the following: 1. Plan curriculum with students, parents, teachers and other stakeholders.
Design programs of study by grade levels. Plan or schedule classes or school calendar. Prepare curriculum guides or teacher guides by grade level or subject area. Help in the evaluation and selection of textbooks. Observe teachers. Assist teachers in the implementation of the curriculum. Encourage curriculum innovation and change. Develop standards for curriculum and instructional evaluation. System Approach — The systems approach to curriculum was influenced by systems theory.
In the systems approach to curriculum, the parts of the total school district or school are examined in terms of how they relate to each other. The organizational chart of the school represents a systems approach. To George Beauchamp, the systems theory of education sees the following to be of equal importance are 1 administration 2 counselling 3 curriculum 4 instruction and 5 evaluation.
The humanistic approach considers the formal or planned curriculum and the informal or hidden curriculum. It considers the whole child and believes that in curriculum the total development of the individual is the prime consideration. The learner is at the center of the curriculum.
Activity 1 will be on the elements or components of the curriculum and Activity 2 will be on the approaches to curriculum. Activity1 — Lesson Plan: A Curriculum? Get a copy of the best written lesson plan of your favorite teacher in the elementary or high school. Add this to your portfolio collection.
Read every detail of the lesson plan and specifically look into the following: 1. What are the objectives of the lesson plan? What is the subject matter content?
What strategies or methods of teaching are utilized? What evaluation procedure is used? Do the four components fit or match with one another? Can you consider a lesson plan as a curriculum? Activity 2 — Mr. Make an interview protocol regarding curriculum approach with your groupmates. Show your output to your teacher for comments. Refine your instrument and place a sample in your portfolio.
Choose a school with a principal as your respondent. Secure permission to interview the principal at a certain time of the school day. Record all the answers to your protocol. From your interview, what kind of curriculum approach is the principal using? Why do you say so? Let us reflect on this issue. Choose a particular level elementary,secondary,tertiary and a specific subject area Science, Math, English as a point of reference. In your own experiences as a student: a.
Identify at least 3. Describe the weaknesses or difficulties. Are there solutions to these conditions? What do you propose? Can a school curriculum succeed without a clear vision? Will subject matter dictate the approach in curriculum? Should the learning activities be congruent to the objectives of the curriculum?
Should evaluation of learning outcomes be based on the experiences of the learners? As a student of curriculum, will you put equal emphasis on the four curricular components? Does a principal with a humanistic approach to curriculum emphasize most memorization of subject matter?
Does the systems approach to curriculum consider only each part? Can there be a curriculum without evaluation? Can experiences be measured? Bilbao, Ed,D. This description implies that the crux of a curriculum is the different planned and unplanned activities which have been lived, acted upon or done by the learners with the guidance of the teacher.
Hence in curriculum development, the teaching and learning are actions necessary to accomplish a goal in education. What is the role of teaching in the curriculum development? Who does it? This lesson will focus on the teaching and learning processes as salient components of the curriculum.
Both processes provide experiences which will accomplish the goals of education. What knowledge is needed to understand this process? This section clarifies the process of the teaching as it relates to the experiences in the curriculum, an important ingredient.
Good teaching is difficult to agree upon. While it remains to be difficult to agree on what good teaching is, effective teaching can be demonstrated. Effective teaching is one that will bring about intended learning outcomes. Because of the changing paradigms of teaching, several definitions have evolved based on the theories of teaching and learning that have come about. Some view teaching as an organization of meaningful learning. To the traditionalists, teaching is process of imparting knowledge and skills required to master a subject matter.
It is a process of dispensing knowledge to an empty vessel which is the mind of the learner. Teaching is showing, telling, giving instruction, making someone understand in order to learn. In this instance, the person who teaches, controls learning.
This person is a teacher, a dispenser of knowledge, an ultimate authority, a director of learning. On the other hand, as progressive and humanist education advance, the meaning of teaching broadened to fit the psychological meaning of the term. Teaching is now perceived as stimulating, directing, guiding the learner and evaluating the learning outcomes of teaching. It looks similar to curriculum development.
Definitely, it is because the process of teaching replicates the process of curriculum development. The implementation phase of curriculum development is the actual teaching and experiencing of a curriculum. The teaching process is shown in Figure 3 below.
Teaching plans maybe short term like the daily plan or long term plan like the unit plan or a yearly plan. In a plan, considerations should include the learner, availability of materials, time requirements of particular activities, the strategies needed to achieve the objectives and the teacher. The planning phase recognizes the intent that it will be the learners who will learn, hence the next phase will engage more the learner.
The implementation phase requires the teacher to implement what has been planned. Based on the objectives, implementation means to put into action the different activities in order to achieve the objectives through the subject matter. Here, two important players are involved: the teacher and the learner. Their interaction is important in the accomplishment of the plan. Most often the planning phase directs what will be done in the activity but such can also be flexible.
The use of the different teaching styles and strategies should be included in the implementation phase. In the evaluation phase, a match of the objectives with the learning outcomes will be made.
The kind of information should be determined so that the type of the evaluation should be chosen to fit the purpose. Simply, the evaluation phase will answer the question if the plans and implementation have been successfully achieved.
In all the three phases of teaching, a continuous process of feedback and reflection as to whether the three phases were appropriately done and gave good results. In short, feedback is the reflection on the feedback. Is there a need to adjust something in planning, implementation and evaluation? Reflection is a process embedded in teaching where the teacher inquires into his or her actions and provides deep and critical thinking.
To further clarify, what teaching is all about there are some indicators which you can use to guide in the process of good teaching. Good teaching is one that is well planned and where activities are interrelated to each other. Good teaching is one that provides learning experiences or situations that will ensure understanding, application and critical thinking. Good teaching is based on the theories of learning. Good teaching is one where the learner is stimulated to think and reason.
Good teaching utilizes prior learning and its application to new situations. Good teaching embeds a sound evaluation process. What is learning? What are the ways of learning? When do say that we have learned? Let us now look closer at the concept of learning as it relates to the concept of curriculum. Most learning is intentional, like when a learner acquires knowledge in the classroom or when one observes a demonstration activity.
Intentional learning occurs when activities are purposefully arranged for the students to participate and experience. On the other hand, learning sometimes is unintentional like when a child touches a lighted candle and feels it is hot. All individuals are engaged in learning every waking moment, however learning occurs more when the various stimuli are properly arranged for purposes of learning.
Broadly speaking, there are two principal types of learning theories to explain how individuals learn according to educational psychologists. These are behavioral learning theories and cognitive learning theories. Behavioral learning theories emphasize observable behavior such as new skills, knowledge, or attitudes which can be demonstrated.
These forms of behavior are observable and measurable. According to this group of theories, if the individual has changed behavior, he has learned. These and many more were discussed lengthily in your previous courses. Related to these theories is the concept of meaningful learning through cognitive models.
Jerome Bruner , David Ausubel and Robert Gagne described three models of teaching which are anchored on the cognitive learning theory. Discovery learning theory of Jerome Bruner states that the individual learns from his own discovery of the environment. Learners are inherently curious, thus they can be self motivated until they find answers to the problems.
Learners, when actively involved in their own learning, will continuously construct their own knowledge. Each individual is capable of learning how to learn. Learning is flexible, exploratory and independent. Reception learning of David Ausubel poses a contrast to the discovery learning of Bruner.
To Ausubel, though learners are inherently curious, they may not be able to know what is important or relevant and they need external motivation in order to learn. However, both theories believe that learners should be actively involved in their own learning. Events of learning of Robert Gagne proposed that an act of learning involves a series of eight internal events: 1.
Motivation phase — The learner must be motivated to learn by expectation that learning will be rewarding. Apprehending phase — The learner attends or pays attention if learning has to take place. Acquisition phase — While the learner is paying attention, the stage is set and the information presented. Learner transforms information into meaningful form. The mental images formed associates the ne information with old information.
This is where advance organizers are useful. This may take place by means of practice, elaboration or rehearsal. Recall phase — Recall previous learned information. To learn to gain access to that which has been learned is a critical phase in learning. Generalization phase — Transfer of information to new situations allows application of the learned information in the context in which it was learned.
Feedback phase — Students must receive feedback on their performance. This will serve as reinforce for successful performance. Some general statements which describe learning based on the theories of learning may include the following: Learning does not take place in an empty vessel.
Each learner is assumed to have prior learning and maybe able to connect these to present learning. Learning is a social process where interactions with other learners and the teacher are needed.
Learning is both observable and measurable. Learning takes place when all the senses are utilized.
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